Relationship Between Enlightenment and Sociology

Relationship Between Enlightenment and Sociology The theory of social development and progress was the key concept of the Enlightenment [Ray,13]. The experience of Renaissance recovery from the dark ages, rediscovery of antique philosophy, the expansion of colonialism and exploration of non-European cultures, violated established order and lead to expansion of new ideas doubting tradition. The Enlightenment recognized that human history changes, that societies experience material and mental, moral, or philosophical progress. That modernity is just another stage of development, that does not lead the end of history, but might be as well a beginning of some better, new society. Eighteen century thinkers considered reason as the leading force of change, believing, that human knowledge and consciousness may develop linearly. Since the Enlightenment was an age of science and reason, philosophers tend to classify and order possessed knowledge. That lead to a few theories of historical stages development of societies that arranged histor ical periods in progressive order, as Turgot and Condorset did [Ray, 13-15]. The Enlightenments attachment to the idea of progressive development of societies lead to the ideas of future utopia final, goal stage of social evolution. It was a very optimistic concept of history, leading from dark, oppressive periods in the past, through ambiguous and chaotic modernity, to some enlighten, better, just future. Such utopian vision was described by Condorcet, for whom future society would prevail tyranny by changing tradition and superstition into reason [Ray, 15]. Delany wrote of the Enlightenment as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦characterized by a certain utopianism, which was a reflection of the belief in the promises of modernity to bring about freedom. Unlike earlier social thought, it displayed a great belief in the power of human action to shape the future [Delany, Blackwell, 23]. The same was true for Marx, who saw communism as the perfect and most of all just social system. For Marx the end stage of human history communism represented the most desired and final phase of human development. As Sideman wrote: Marx never gave up his Enlightenment faith in the coming of a new era [Sideman, 1998, 36]. But contrary to the Enlightenment philosophers, for Marx the utopia was not to be obtained through evolution and development of reason, but through revolution of working class. The idea of revolution was not present in eighteen century before the experience of French revolution. Though it is sad that the Enlightenment prepared the ground for the revolt in France, works of eighteen century thinkers did not appeal to force or violent change. Marx shared the romantic vision of with socialist thinkers and activists supporting French strife. Moreover, unlike his eighteen century ancestors, Marx sought emancipation in proletariat the working class of modernity. The Enlightenment was an age of intellectuals, giving special role to philosophers in the process of development of society [Szacki]. In eighteen century thought reason had the emancipatory force. Marx violent vision of revolution did not reserved place for intellectuals, though Marx was one of them. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Ideologies and religion The end of the Middle Ages ended the era of gods laws and theological explanation of social order. The Enlightenment separated religion form politics. Eighteen century brought to life the concept of public private spheres. Religion became private matter of citizens. Gods rights no longer decided on political questions and social relations. Secular society was based on secular rules. The Enlightenment believed in reason and science, and through them sought emancipation from religion and superstition. Social change required that cultural traditions be weakened to allow for new ideas and attitudes favoring social progress [Seidman, 1998, 34]. Religion and tradition constrained social change and overruled the utopian vision of future. It does not mean that the Enlightenment was a truly secular area. Rejection of religion covered only public, political sphere. None of the great philosophers of the period Becon, Diderot, Locke postulated atheism [Ray, 13]. The issue was to separate reli gion from science, theology from logical reasoning. Religion intruded cognition, so had to be abandoned in the sphere of knowledge. Marx also shared with the Enlightenment the concept of secular society. Though he brought the idea of secularization further. For Marx every ideology and meta-narration of society in every stage of its development was a product of current economic relations, so was the religion. Religion, internalized rules, regulations and prohibitions, served justification of the conditions of production and hence the justification of exploitation. In this sense religion was a mechanism of oppression. That is why, according to Marx, emancipation not only required rejection of theological order of the world, but also complete rejection of religion. Once again this emancipation required revolution dramatic and sudden change of economic conditions that would change social relations, including execution of religion. In this sense religion was not a private issue, but a political one, that justified bourgeois order. As in the eighteen century religion obstructed change this time, though, it was not s uppose to be withdraw from public life, but destroyed absolutely. Revolution guaranteed changing social order not only in the sphere of production, but also in the sphere of religion. The role of science The Enlightenment was the era of development of sciences. A great expand of sciences such as mathematics, medicine, natural sciences changed the view of modern philosophers on the world and human kind. Science revealed mystery of existence and the order of nature. That is why science become one of the ways to obtain individual freedom. Science lead to discovery of logical, rational order of human and societal relations. For Marx science also had an important role in revealing the rules of organization of society. Marx knew that in order to change, it is necessary to understand the social forces institutions, cultural traditions, social groups [Seidman, 1998, 34]. In Marx theory science held the explanatory role by revealing the real nature of social order, gives information about social classes, modes of production and rules of historical development. According to Marx, science should be based on rational assumptions, logical laws, it should reject common sense and superstitions. Economic perspective Though Marx theory shares materialistic perspective, he was not the one to introduce economic interpretation of social life. Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson and others eighteen century thinkers saw the leading role of economy in social life. Those early economists wrote about dehumanization of work and disintegration of society through modern specialization of production and technical development of the production process [Ray, 15]. Capitalist revolution of eighteen century brought new phenomena that were not overlooked by present-day thinkers. Negative effects of industrialization, demographic explosion and urbanization were thoroughly discussed by that time. As we can see, the importance of material conditions for human individual and collective life was not the Marx invention, though he also observed that technology destroys social relations. Innovations, machines and devices used in the process of production serve the dominant class for exploitation of workers [Ray, 65]. Nevertheless, with his materialistic view on society, Marx went further, with the idea that: the reproduction of material life precedes the production of culture [Seidman, 1998, 37]. For Marx material conditions of existence were the basis for all other characteristics of life. According to Marx, living conditions determine social structure, policies, rules and morality. Marx showed that certain social conditions shape certain forms of consciousness. That was a great contribution of Marx thought to social sciences. Since Marx, social scientists began research on the role of material conditions on human thoughts, believes and attitudes, giving a start to many discipline s of social sciences, as sociology of thought, sociology of knowledge or sociology of religion [Szacki, 231]. Moreover, since Marx, social scientists consider development process and ownership relations of societies as the most important criteria of social studies analysis. The concept of state Enlightenment to find such origins of social order not to limit freedom. How to reconcile freedom and social order. Enlightenment the idea of individual in society free form state, church and other collective forms of organizations. Civil society idea freedom through civil rights. In search of order based on rational assumptions. The role of philosopher as a leading role in creating social order, morality. Intelectuals [Szacki, 84, Ray, Enlightenment, 11]. All stages of development according to Marx were different social formations. Those formations were direct creations of economic relations within society. The most thorough fully described formation was bourgeois one. It was contemporary, most developed and differentiated mode of production. Capitalism stage of development was characterized by binary class structure, where one class was the group of society that sold their work and did not own other means of productions the workers, while the other was the group of owners of means of production that benefited from workers work the capitalists. Individualism and collective action In earlier philosophy status of human being in society was constant and determined not by human himself but by external forces the world order, gods will, some kind of justice and internal sense of social existence. Enlightenment and especially the French revolution, brought the idea of civil society and civil rights [Szacki, 85]. The Enlightenment claimed that all human beings share some common characteristics that are independent of external, historical or natural conditions. It was a kind of individualism, that claimed that human nature in general have some common characteristics inherited form the state of nature. That is what makes society egalitarian differences between human status in society are merely secondary. In this sense that all (male) human beings are equal and share the same civic rights. Emancipation in this context was a political emancipation of citizens form feudal, traditional relations. Marx connected human position in social structure with material conditions and idea of work and ownership. For him the idea of society was not based on the idea of civil rights but on the idea of economic relations between different social groups classes. It was dichotomous vision of society made of workers and capitalists the owners of means of production. Emancipation was possible not on the basis of civil rights but on the basis of changing economic relations. This was a revolutionary perspective leading to turnover of social order. Unlike the Enlightenment, Marx did not perceived emancipation and concept of freedom in individual actions. He clearly rejected individualism both in terms of individual social actions and as the method of inference about human conditions. Marx claimed that every individual is rooted in his collective history and society, and his consciousness, as well as beliefs, goals and needs are shaped through that heritage. That is why not only analysis of hum an conditions, but also the projected change of social relations, has to take into consideration collective baggage and collective effort. That is why Marx shared the belief that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦individuals do not act on ideas primarily because they are true of have been proven correct, but on the basis of their self-interest. Ideas may shape our actions, but our social interests determine which ideas we adopt. CLASS AND DIVISION OF SOCIETY Critical theory Marx is perceived as the father of critical theory. As Bryan wrote it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦classical sociology is a critical discipline, because it represents typically an attack on the taken-for-granted assumptions of bourgeois, utilitarian liberalism. This critical tradition is conventionally associated with Marxism [Bryan s. Turner, Blackwell, 9]. But one cannot negate that critical attitude was characteristic for the Enlightenment thought. XVIII century philosophers questioned traditions, religions, authorities, beliefs, metaphysics and everything else that was not perceived rational. Marx theory gave basis for future revolutions, but it was the Enlightenment thought that was a mother of French Revolution. In this sense the Enlightenment theories were the first revolutionary theories, revolutionary through their critique, doubt and rejection. Marx only developed further this critical perspective, but he was not the first one to neglect contemporary, well established order. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦our social interests are determined by our social position, in particular our class status [Seidman, 1998, 34] Marx and Engels aimed to shift the focus of social criticism from the analysis of consciousness and the evolution of ideas to that of the development of social institutions and conflicts [Seidman, 1998, 37] Historical materialism class dynamics shape the organization of socioeconomic systems which in turn, determine the structure and direction of the whole society [S, 38] Class theory of society, class struggle Power comes from the ownership of means of production social theory becomes the critique of political economy, [Delany, Blackwell, 25] New constructs: commodification, class-struggle, profit, surplus value Marxs social theory was a critical one. Critique does not try to explain or simply interpret society for its own sake, but is inherently critical of the prevailing social order and seeks to reveal the system of domination. [Delany, Blackwell, 25] Karl Marx, effectively replaced philosophical analysis with an advanced social theory of modern society. [Delany, Blackwell, 23] Conclusions Reason vs. modes of production Reason vs. false consciousness Reason vs. ownership

Management Control System Essay

A common fleet significantly simplifies scheduling, operations, and maintenance. Training costs for pilots, ground crew, and mechanics are lower, because there’s only a single aircraft to learn. Purchasing, provisioning, and other operations are also vastly simplified, therefore lowering costs. 2. People: Southwest tries hard to different way. For example, not assigning seats in its flights helps to reinforce its image that it gets passengers to their destinations when they want to get there, on time, at the lowest possible fares. By not assigning seats, Southwest can turn the airplanes quicker at the gate. If an airplane can be turned quicker, more routes can be flown each day. That generates more revenue, so that Southwest can offer lower fares. About 60% of Southwest’s passenger revenue was generated by online bookings via southwest. com. That southwest. com was the number one airline website by revenue and Nielsen/Net Rating identified it as the largest airline site in terms of unique visitors. 2. How do Southwest’s control systems help execute the firm’s strategy? Southwest’s control system help execute the firm’s strategy by: – Implementing short haul and medium haul, on-line booking, less time at the gate, hedged fuel and oil Southwest consistently sought out ways to improve its efficiencies and pass on the cost savings to its passengers. In 2004, Southwest had reduce the headcount per aircraft to 74 from 85 in 2003. It hedged about 85% of its fuel and oil needs as a result saved about $ 455 million . It also entered new airports after a process of due diligence and with a sense of commitment to the people it served. Southwest pilots were among the only pilots of major U. S. airlines who did not belong to a nation union. National union rules limited the number of hours pilots could fly. But Southwest’s pilots were unionized independently allowing them to fly far more hours than pilots at other airlines. Othe workers at SWA wree nationally unionized but their contracts wrere flexible enough to allow them to jump in and help out regardless of the task at hand. From the time the plane landed until it was ready for takeoff took approx 20-25 minutes at SWA and required a ground crew of 4 plus 2 at the gate. Is the controller relationship of Martex better than that of Rendell current organizationalrelationship ? Objective: To achieve profitability and growth Ans 1: What is the organisational philosophy of Martex with respect to the controller function? What do you think of it? Should Rendell Adopt this philosophy? The organizational philosophy of   Martex   with respect to the controller function is thatdivisional controller report to the corporate controller for transparency of information on budget issues. According to us it has the following Adv and disadv:

About the Vice President of the United States

Sometimes, the Vice President of the United States is remembered more for things they say wrong than for things they do right. If we do everything right, if we do it with absolute certainty, theres still a 30% chance were going to get it wrong, said Vice President Joe Biden. Or as Vice President Dan Quayle put it, If we dont succeed, we run the risk of failure. Thomas R. Marshall, 28th Vice President, said of his office, Once there were two brothers. One went away to sea; the other was elected vice president. And nothing was heard of either of them again. All verbal gaffes and disparaging remarks aside, the vice president remains our second highest federal government official and a single heartbeat away from ascending to the presidency. Electing the Vice President The office of Vice President of the United States is established along with the office of President of the United States in Article II, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution, which also creates and designates the Electoral College system as the method by which both offices are to be elected. Before enactment of the 12th Amendment in 1804, there were no separately nominated candidates for vice president. Instead, as required by Article II, Section 1, the presidential candidate receiving the second-highest number of electoral votes was awarded the vice presidency. In essence, the vice presidency was treated as a consolation prize. It took only three elections for the weakness of that system of choosing the vice president to become obvious. In the 1796 election, Founding Fathers and bitter political rivals John Adams - a Federalist - and Thomas Jefferson - a Republican - ended up as president and vice president. To say the least, the two did not play well together. Fortunately, the government of then was quicker to fix its mistakes than the government of now, so by 1804, the 12th Amendment had revised the electoral process so that candidates ran specifically for either president or vice president. Today, when you vote for a presidential candidate, you are also voting for his or her vice presidential running mate. Unlike the president, there is no constitutional limitation on the number of times a person can be elected vice president. However, constitutional scholars and lawyers disagree whether a twice-elected former president can be elected vice president. Since no former presidents have ever tried running for vice president, the issue has never been tested in court. Qualifications to Serve The 12th Amendment also specifies that the qualifications required to serve as vice president are the same as those required to serve as president, which are briefly: be a natural born U.S. citizen; be at least 35 years old, and have lived in the U.S. for at least 14 years. My mother believed and my father believed that if I wanted to be President of the United States, I could be, I could be Vice President! said Vice President Joe Biden. Duties and Responsibilities of the Vice President Having been kept in the dark about the existence of the atomic bomb by President Roosevelt, Vice President Harry Truman, after taking over as president, remarked that the vice presidents job is to go to weddings and funerals. However, the vice president does have some significant responsibilities and duties. A Heartbeat from the Presidency Certainly, the responsibility most on the mind of vice presidents is that under the order of presidential succession, they are required to take over the duties of the President of the United States at any time the president becomes, for any reason, unable to serve, including death, resignation, impeachment, or physical incapacitation. As Vice President Dan Quayle said, One word sums up probably the responsibility of any vice president, and that one word is to be prepared. President of the Senate Under Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution, the vice president serves as president of the Senate and is allowed to vote on legislation when necessary to break a tie. While the Senates supermajority vote rules have reduced the impact of this power, the vice president can still influence legislation. As president of the Senate, the vice president is assigned by the 12th Amendment to preside over the joint session of Congress in which the votes of the Electoral College are counted and reported. In this capacity, three vice presidents -- John Breckinridge, Richard Nixon, and Al Gore -- have had the distasteful duty of announcing that they had lost the presidential election. On the brighter side, four vice presidents -- John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H. W. Bush - were able to announce that they had been elected president. Despite the vice presidents constitutionally assigned status in the Senate, the office is generally considered to be a part of the Executive Branch, rather than the Legislative Branch of the government. Informal and Political Duties While certainly not required by the Constitution, which wisely includes no mention of politics, the vice president is traditionally expected to support and advance the policies and legislative agenda of the president. For example, the vice president might be called on by the president to draft legislation favored by the administration and talk it up in an effort to gain the support of members of Congress. The vice president might then be asked to help shepherd the bill through the legislative process. The vice president typically attends all Presidential Cabinet meetings and may be called on to act as an adviser the president on a wide variety of issues. The vice president might stand in for the president at meetings with foreign leaders or state funerals abroad. In addition, the vice president sometimes represents the president in showing the administrations concern at sites of natural disasters. Stepping Stone to the Presidency Serving as vice president is sometimes considered a political stepping stone to being elected president. History, however, shows that of the 14 vice presidents who became president, 8 did so because of the death of the sitting president. The likelihood that a vice president will run for and be elected to the presidency depends largely on his or her own political aspirations and energy, and the success and popularity of the president with which he or she served. A vice president who served under a successful and popular president is likely to be seen by the public as a party-loyal sidekick, worthy of advancement. On the other hand, a vice president who served under a failed and unpopular president may be considered as more of a willing accomplice, worthy only of being put out to pasture.

Construction Rethinking Operational Stages - 1668 Words

Introduction In the last few decades, the quest for continuous improvement and innovation has led to the discovery of new approaches to best practice by different players in the construction industry in the United Kingdom. These efforts have been initiated with the view to increase understanding of the needs of key business areas as well as increase client, users and stakeholders value. In this regard experts in the field of construction have proposed rethinking of construction (Egan 1998) by strategically rethinking operational stages in order to decrease cost and improve performance. One of these strategic operational stages, called the briefing process has perked the interests of the researcher in the course of producing a report†¦show more content†¦According to Egan, inefficient practices as well as non-collaborative operational practices lead to disparity and dispute for all parties. It is therefore recommended that all parties understand project requirements, ensure client participation and operational transparency. The challenge is to achieve high performance amidst constraints and improve construction performance by concentrating on meeting end user needs. It is only through this that the project management can ensure value delivered to the client. To achieve the above partnering is imperative, and communication is vital. The initial communication point in any construction project is the brief. During the 1980s and 1990s efforts have been directed towards the briefing process and its subsequent techniques as part of management design (Atkin et al 1996). These have been initiated with the view to bridge the gaps between client and management expectations, experience of service and definition of service. There are three compelling reasons why a brief is required for any project management before carrying out work. These are: i. Effective and measurable work ii. Saves time and money iii. Fair remuneration (Herd 2003) To achieve these objectives briefs must be articulated through clear thinking as well defined objectives. Not only this but briefs must be written, discussed between the clients and the management, and documented. It is a process,Show MoreRelatedTheory of Cognitive Development and Jean Piaget2077 Words   |  9 Pagesdiscontinuous stages in the same sequence, namely they are: the sensorimotor stage, the pre-operational stage, the concrete operations stage and the formal operation stage. The first stage, which is the sensorimotor stage, occurs around 0-2 years. During this stage, infants interact with the environment through limited senses and motor activities. Piaget contends that the infant at this stage do not understand object permanence 5. The second stage is the pre-oprational stage. 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